Early Societies and Their Achievements

Ancient civilizations laid the foundation for much of what we know today. From the fertile valleys of the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates, to the Indus and Huang He rivers, early societies developed agriculture, city life, writing, and monumental architecture.

Key Civilizations

• Mesopotamia: Often called the "cradle of civilization," Mesopotamia introduced the first written language (cuneiform), complex cities, and the Code of Hammurabi.
• Ancient Egypt: Renowned for its pyramids, pharaohs, and hieroglyphics, Egypt made strides in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.
• Indus Valley: Known for urban planning, sanitation, and mysterious script, the Indus people built sophisticated cities like Mohenjo-daro.
• Ancient China: The Shang and Zhou dynasties contributed bronze technology, silk production, and early philosophies.

Lasting Contributions

Many inventions—such as the wheel, plow, papyrus, and early forms of government—still influence our lives today.

Real-World Relevance

Understanding ancient civilizations helps us appreciate modern systems like written laws, city infrastructure, and cultural diversity.