The Enlightenment Era - SAT Subject Test in World History

The Leviathan was published in 1651 and was written by English philosopher Thomas Hobbes. In Leviathan, Hobbes argues that mankind is inherently selfish and inclined towards aggression and disorder. He purports that there exists a “state of nature” of mankind that is, primarily, the “war of all against all.” In order to prevent mankind from constantly warring with one another, Hobbes argues for an absolute monarch and a rigidly structured social order. Hobbes can be seen as the philosophical opposite of John Locke, who argued that mankind was inherently good and that absolute government corrupted those in power into serving solely their own interests. These two political philosophies have clashed ever since, particularly in Europe, and both remain deeply influential in contemporary political thought.

The Congress of Vienna was a meeting of various European heads of states in 1815 in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. The Congress was focused on two major issues: reordering Europe and protecting the "balance of power," and ensuring the continued legitimacy of the absolutist and constitutional monarchs of Europe.

The 1815 Congress of Vienna took place in the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. Its primary concern was establishing what has come to be called "The Concert of Europe." Essentially, this means balancing the territory of all the major European nations to discourage them from engaging in warfare with one another (restoring the balance of power). Its secondary concern was ensuring the continued rule of Europe's absolute and constitutional monarchs and preventing the transition towards Republicanism.

While its true that Thomas Jefferson did write in the Declaration of Independence that all men have a right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," he was taking his ideas from the earlier writings of John Locke. Locke argued against governmental absolutism and firmly believed in the rights of men to govern themselves. He argued that the only legitimate form of government came from the consent of the people and that all men have a right to life, liberty, and (private) property.

The French Revolution began in 1789. It is widely considered one of the most important events in European history, particularly in the history of European transition from absolutism to constituional monarchy to republicanism; however, like many revolutions, it ended up consuming itself and resulting in a dictatorship.

The English Civil War was fought between the forces of the English Parliament, called Parliamentarians, and the forces of the English monarchy, called Royalists. Although the Parliamentarians were Protestants and the monarchy was partially Catholic (or at least sympathetic to Catholicism), the war was fought more over secular control. It ended with victory for Parliament, the execution of the King, and the decade-long reign of Oliver Cromwell.

Following the defeat of the Royalists and the forces of the English crown in the English Civil War, the reigning monarch King Charles I was publicly executed, to the shock of the rest of Europe. He was the first reigning monarch to be executed by his own people in European history.

The English Civil War pitted Parliament (Parliamentarians or "Roundheads") against the monarchy (Royalists or "Cavaliers"). It ended in victory for Parliament and the Roundheads and the execution of the reigning monarch, Charles I; however, Parliament's rule, under effective military dictator Oliver Cromwell, lasted less than a decade before the monarchy was reinstated.

The English Civil War was fought between royalists and parliamentarians during the 1640s and resulted in victory for parliament and the abolition of the English monarchy. The parliamentarians were led by Oliver Cromwell, who became the de facto dictator of the country. His rule was widely unpopular, and following his death England reverted back to a monarchy.

During the Restoration period of English history two political factions emerged in the English Parliament—the Whigs and the Tories. The Whigs favored the supremacy of Parliament over the crown and desired a codified Bill of Rights to ensure the continued indepenence of Parliament from the abuses of the monarchy.

During the Restoration period of English history, two political parties emerged in the English Parliament—the Tories and the Whigs. The Whigs favored the supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy and were heavily opposed to a Catholic monarch sitting on the throne. The Tories, on the other hand, favored the supremacy of the Crown over Parliament and a return to the old-world order.

The Puritans were a powerful religious group in seventeenth-century England. They fought on the side of the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War, and following the victory of Parliament they gained control of the political and religious life of the country. Puritans wanted to reform the Anglican Church from within, taking it further away from Catholicism and ensuring that the English cultural values were in keeping with those advocated in the Bible.

The Gunpowder Plot was a plan designed by a group of Catholic extremists to blow up the Protestant-dominated Houses of Parliament, in 1605. It was foiled when the conspirators were discovered below the Houses of Parliament, setting up fuses and explosive devices.

During the English Civil War, the Scottish allied themselves with the forces of Parliament. At the Battle of Marsten Moor, the combined forces of Scotland and Parliament defeated the Royalists.

The Clarendon Code is the name given to a series of laws passed in England during the Restoration period following the English Civil War. The laws were designed to ensure the uniformity and supremacy of the Anglican faith in England, and to prevent the conversion of the English people to Catholicism or other forms of Protestantism. The Act of Uniformity and Conventicle Act are both aspects of the Clarendon Code.

When the Puritans came into prominence in England, they sought to implement a system of laws that reflected their interpretation of the Bible. Essentially anything that could be described as "sinful," or even just "entertainment," was banned. This included sports, drinking, plays, gambling, and many other components of English cultural tradition. Metalworking, of course, is more of a necessity than the others, not related to human behavior and so continued.

Oliver Cromwell's rise to power occurred as a result of the fighting of the English Civil War, not the other way around.

The other answers-the king's inability to work with Parliament, high taxation (particularly ship money), tension between different Protestant sects, and fear of a Catholic heir (since the king's wife was Catholic)--describe factors that all contributed to the start of the English Civil War.

Enlightened despotism (also called enlightened absolutism) was a form of absolute monarchy that existed in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The rulers, or enlightened despots, were heavily influenced by the ideas and theories spread by the Enlightenment thinkers of the time, particularly ideas concerning rationalism, freedom, and sponsorship of the arts and sciences. Of the European leaders listed in the answer choices, only Catherine the Great was considered an enlightened despot.

Mendeleev is most famous for his work in "perfecting" the periodic table of elements. His work allowed people to understand similarities and differences between chemical elements with greater clarity. The theory of relativity was an idea of Albert Einstein's, and Newton invented the system of calculus. Alchemy, the practice of trying to turn materials into precious metals, was very popular during the Scientific Revolution.