Musculoskeletal Physiology - Human Anatomy and Physiology
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Which of the following statements about osteogenesis is false?
Which of the following statements about osteogenesis is false?
Bone growth has multiple steps that allow growth in both length and width. One thing to remember is the functions of the bone cells during growth and development. Osteoclasts are responsible for "hollowing out" the center of long bones, which makes for larger cavities within the diaphysis. Osteoblasts, on the other hand, are responsible for laying down additional bone matrix on the outsides of the bones.
As bone cells mature, they become further embedded within subsequent layers of the bony matrix. Osteogenic cells, which give rise to osteoblasts, are located in the outer periosteum of the bone. When damage occurs to the bone, osteogenic cells differentiate and begin repairing the bony matrix from the outside.
Bone growth has multiple steps that allow growth in both length and width. One thing to remember is the functions of the bone cells during growth and development. Osteoclasts are responsible for "hollowing out" the center of long bones, which makes for larger cavities within the diaphysis. Osteoblasts, on the other hand, are responsible for laying down additional bone matrix on the outsides of the bones.
As bone cells mature, they become further embedded within subsequent layers of the bony matrix. Osteogenic cells, which give rise to osteoblasts, are located in the outer periosteum of the bone. When damage occurs to the bone, osteogenic cells differentiate and begin repairing the bony matrix from the outside.
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What is the piezoelectric effect?
What is the piezoelectric effect?
Bone is a dynamic tissue that remodels under mechanical stress, or orthodonture. Mechanical stress in bone generates electric potential via the piezoelectric effect. Negative potential results in bone deposition (bone is laid down) whereas positive potential results in bone resorption (bone is broken down).
Bone is a dynamic tissue that remodels under mechanical stress, or orthodonture. Mechanical stress in bone generates electric potential via the piezoelectric effect. Negative potential results in bone deposition (bone is laid down) whereas positive potential results in bone resorption (bone is broken down).
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Which of the following is NOT a zone of the epiphyseal growth plate?
Which of the following is NOT a zone of the epiphyseal growth plate?
Histologically, the epiphyseal growth plate is divided into five zones. From epiphysis to diaphysis they are the resting zone, zone of proliferation, zone of maturation, zone of calcification, and zone of ossification. At the growth plate, cartilage is constantly being developed into the bone of the diaphysis. The stages of this process align with the regions of the epiphyseal plate. The resting zone houses quiescent chondrocytes that are not yet active in bone synthesis. The zone proliferation is characterized by chondrocyte mitosis and replication. These cells then develop and grow with in the zone of maturation. Eventually the cells reach their maximum growth and undergo apoptosis to release cell contents in the zone of calcification. This prevents cartilage from infiltrating the bony region of the diaphysis. The chondrin matrix begins to calcify in this zone as well. As calcification progresses and the organic cartilage matrix is replaced by bony hydroxyapatite mineral in the zone of ossification, the epiphyseal plate completely replaces the original chondrocytes with bone.
As more bone is produced, the epiphyseal plate is pushed farther and farther away from the midpoint of the bone. The lengthening of the bone ends when the zones of the epiphyseal plate fuse and further growth becomes impossible.
Histologically, the epiphyseal growth plate is divided into five zones. From epiphysis to diaphysis they are the resting zone, zone of proliferation, zone of maturation, zone of calcification, and zone of ossification. At the growth plate, cartilage is constantly being developed into the bone of the diaphysis. The stages of this process align with the regions of the epiphyseal plate. The resting zone houses quiescent chondrocytes that are not yet active in bone synthesis. The zone proliferation is characterized by chondrocyte mitosis and replication. These cells then develop and grow with in the zone of maturation. Eventually the cells reach their maximum growth and undergo apoptosis to release cell contents in the zone of calcification. This prevents cartilage from infiltrating the bony region of the diaphysis. The chondrin matrix begins to calcify in this zone as well. As calcification progresses and the organic cartilage matrix is replaced by bony hydroxyapatite mineral in the zone of ossification, the epiphyseal plate completely replaces the original chondrocytes with bone.
As more bone is produced, the epiphyseal plate is pushed farther and farther away from the midpoint of the bone. The lengthening of the bone ends when the zones of the epiphyseal plate fuse and further growth becomes impossible.
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Which of the following cell types synthesizes hydroxyapatite?
Which of the following cell types synthesizes hydroxyapatite?
There are three primary types of bone cell: osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts are responsible for creating new bone by sequestering minerals and generating new hydroxyapatite matrix. Osteoclasts break down this matrix, releasing the minerals into the blood. Osteocytes are mature osteoblasts that have become embedded in the matrix of the bone and serve primarily for communication purposes.
Satellite cells are located at the periphery of muscle cells and are capable of dividing and giving rise to new myoblasts. Satellite cells are, essentially, adult muscle stem cells. Common lymphoid progenitor cells are another type of adult stem cell, housed in red bone marrow, and are responsible for regenerating the erythrocyte population of the body, as well as producing lymphocytes.
There are three primary types of bone cell: osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts are responsible for creating new bone by sequestering minerals and generating new hydroxyapatite matrix. Osteoclasts break down this matrix, releasing the minerals into the blood. Osteocytes are mature osteoblasts that have become embedded in the matrix of the bone and serve primarily for communication purposes.
Satellite cells are located at the periphery of muscle cells and are capable of dividing and giving rise to new myoblasts. Satellite cells are, essentially, adult muscle stem cells. Common lymphoid progenitor cells are another type of adult stem cell, housed in red bone marrow, and are responsible for regenerating the erythrocyte population of the body, as well as producing lymphocytes.
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Which of the following parts of the bones is found most deep to all of the other layers?
Which of the following parts of the bones is found most deep to all of the other layers?
The endosteum is the layer that is found deep to all layers. It is found in the inner lining of the bone. Meanwhile, the periosteum is the most superficial layer of the bone which compromises the outer covering of bones.
The endosteum is the layer that is found deep to all layers. It is found in the inner lining of the bone. Meanwhile, the periosteum is the most superficial layer of the bone which compromises the outer covering of bones.
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Which of the following is NOT characteristic of cardiac muscle?
Which of the following is NOT characteristic of cardiac muscle?
Skeletal muscle is the only muscle type that is multinucleated. Both cardiac and smooth muscle cells have only one nucleus.
Smooth muscle is under involuntary control, innervated by the autonomic nervous system, and contains mononucleated cells. Skeletal muscle is striated, multinucleated, and under voluntary control. Cardiac muscle is striated, mononucleated, and under involuntary control.
Cardiac muscle also uses intercalated discs, specialized cellular junctions, to facilitate electrical conduction between cardiomyocytes. This helps coordinate the contraction of the heart.
Skeletal muscle is the only muscle type that is multinucleated. Both cardiac and smooth muscle cells have only one nucleus.
Smooth muscle is under involuntary control, innervated by the autonomic nervous system, and contains mononucleated cells. Skeletal muscle is striated, multinucleated, and under voluntary control. Cardiac muscle is striated, mononucleated, and under involuntary control.
Cardiac muscle also uses intercalated discs, specialized cellular junctions, to facilitate electrical conduction between cardiomyocytes. This helps coordinate the contraction of the heart.
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Three muscle cells are placed side by side.
In muscle cell 1, striations are clearly visible.
In muscle cell 2, striations are also present, with sharp discs periodically found along muscle fibers. Further examination shows gap junctions between adjacent cells.
In muscle cell 3, no striations are present.
Which of the above types of muscle cell is most likely to be found in the myocardium?
Three muscle cells are placed side by side.
In muscle cell 1, striations are clearly visible.
In muscle cell 2, striations are also present, with sharp discs periodically found along muscle fibers. Further examination shows gap junctions between adjacent cells.
In muscle cell 3, no striations are present.
Which of the above types of muscle cell is most likely to be found in the myocardium?
Cardiac muscle is physiologically and morphologically distinct from skeletal and smooth muscle. Instead of using myosin light chain kinase (like smooth muscle), cardiac muscle uses the same sarcomere pattern of skeletal muscle. This explains the presence of striations in both types of tissue.
Cardiac muscle is unique, however, in that it has gap junctions that allow the exchange of ions between individual cells. This allows the myocardium, or muscular portion of heart tissue, to beat in a coordinated fashion, as cells are depolarizing alongside one another. Additionally, intercalated discs are present at the ends of sarcomeres, but are not present in skeletal muscle.
These two characteristics allow us to conclude that muscle cell type 2 is cardiac muscle, and will be found in the myocardium.
Cardiac muscle is physiologically and morphologically distinct from skeletal and smooth muscle. Instead of using myosin light chain kinase (like smooth muscle), cardiac muscle uses the same sarcomere pattern of skeletal muscle. This explains the presence of striations in both types of tissue.
Cardiac muscle is unique, however, in that it has gap junctions that allow the exchange of ions between individual cells. This allows the myocardium, or muscular portion of heart tissue, to beat in a coordinated fashion, as cells are depolarizing alongside one another. Additionally, intercalated discs are present at the ends of sarcomeres, but are not present in skeletal muscle.
These two characteristics allow us to conclude that muscle cell type 2 is cardiac muscle, and will be found in the myocardium.
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Which of the following cellular structures allows the heart to operate as a functional syncytium?
Which of the following cellular structures allows the heart to operate as a functional syncytium?
The presence of gap junctions within the intercalated discs of contractile cardiac myocytes allows for the rapid passage of ions from one cell to another. Once pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node of the heart spontaneously generate action potentials, this wave of depolarization spreads into neighboring contractile myocytes via gap junctions. These gap junction connections are crucial to the heart operating in a unified and coordinated fashion, and are responsible for the characteristic wavelike contraction of the heart from the apex to the base.
The presence of gap junctions within the intercalated discs of contractile cardiac myocytes allows for the rapid passage of ions from one cell to another. Once pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node of the heart spontaneously generate action potentials, this wave of depolarization spreads into neighboring contractile myocytes via gap junctions. These gap junction connections are crucial to the heart operating in a unified and coordinated fashion, and are responsible for the characteristic wavelike contraction of the heart from the apex to the base.
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What is the pericardial membrane?
What is the pericardial membrane?
The pericardial membrane is the tissue that surrounds the heart. The easiest way to determine the answer in this problem is to understand that "cardial" indicates pertinence heart and that "peri" is a prefix meaning "around."
The pericardial membrane is the tissue that surrounds the heart. The easiest way to determine the answer in this problem is to understand that "cardial" indicates pertinence heart and that "peri" is a prefix meaning "around."
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What is the correct sequence of the cardiac impulse as it transverses through the heart?
What is the correct sequence of the cardiac impulse as it transverses through the heart?
Cardiac contraction begins in the sinoatrial node. The impulse travels through both atria then followed by arriving at the atrioventricular node, which slows the impulse to allow for complete atrial contraction and ventricular filling. Then the impulse travels through the bundle of His, which branches into the right and left bundle branches and through the Purkinje fibers in the walls of both ventricles generating a strong contraction.
Cardiac contraction begins in the sinoatrial node. The impulse travels through both atria then followed by arriving at the atrioventricular node, which slows the impulse to allow for complete atrial contraction and ventricular filling. Then the impulse travels through the bundle of His, which branches into the right and left bundle branches and through the Purkinje fibers in the walls of both ventricles generating a strong contraction.
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A patient is shown to have a cardiac output of 
and a stroke volume of 
. What is his pulse (in beats per minutes)?
A patient is shown to have a cardiac output of
Cardiac output (CO) is defined as:
Rearrange to solve for heart rate.
Cardiac output (CO) is defined as:
Rearrange to solve for heart rate.
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Erythropoiesis takes place in which section of long bones?
Erythropoiesis takes place in which section of long bones?
The ends of long bones, called epiphyses, contain spongy bone. Spongy bone contains red bone marrow, which is the site of erythropoiesis.
The shaft of the long bone is the diaphysis and houses yellow bone marrow, which mainly functions for fat storage. Articular cartilage is found on the exterior of the bone and helps to lubricate and provide cushioning for joints. Lacunae are small gaps in the hydroxyapatite matrix that house osteocytes. The Haversian canal runs through the center of an osteon and serves to house the blood vessels and nerves associated with bone.
The ends of long bones, called epiphyses, contain spongy bone. Spongy bone contains red bone marrow, which is the site of erythropoiesis.
The shaft of the long bone is the diaphysis and houses yellow bone marrow, which mainly functions for fat storage. Articular cartilage is found on the exterior of the bone and helps to lubricate and provide cushioning for joints. Lacunae are small gaps in the hydroxyapatite matrix that house osteocytes. The Haversian canal runs through the center of an osteon and serves to house the blood vessels and nerves associated with bone.
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When there is decreased oxygen in circulation, an organ senses this and secretes a hormone. Which organ and what hormone are in play?
When there is decreased oxygen in circulation, an organ senses this and secretes a hormone. Which organ and what hormone are in play?
The bone marrow makes new red blood cells in a process called erythropoiesis. This is stimulated by the kidneys detecting decreased levels of oxygen in the blood stream. They then release a hormone called erythropoietin which stimulates the bone marrow to make more erythrocytes or red blood cells.
The bone marrow makes new red blood cells in a process called erythropoiesis. This is stimulated by the kidneys detecting decreased levels of oxygen in the blood stream. They then release a hormone called erythropoietin which stimulates the bone marrow to make more erythrocytes or red blood cells.
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What is the name of the concentric rings formed by osteoblasts in bone tissue?
What is the name of the concentric rings formed by osteoblasts in bone tissue?
Osteoblasts will lay down bone matrix around previously formed bone tissue. This forms concentric rings of bone tissue referred to as lamellae.
Lacunae are small gaps in the hydroxyapatite matrix that house the osteocytes. Trabeculae are thin bony structures that span and branch within the region of spongy bone. Canaliculi are small channels between lacunae that allow for cellular nourishment and communication. The epiphyses are the ends of the bone (as opposed to the diaphysis, or bone shaft).
Osteoblasts will lay down bone matrix around previously formed bone tissue. This forms concentric rings of bone tissue referred to as lamellae.
Lacunae are small gaps in the hydroxyapatite matrix that house the osteocytes. Trabeculae are thin bony structures that span and branch within the region of spongy bone. Canaliculi are small channels between lacunae that allow for cellular nourishment and communication. The epiphyses are the ends of the bone (as opposed to the diaphysis, or bone shaft).
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What type of bone cells secrete osteoid and synthesize bone?
What type of bone cells secrete osteoid and synthesize bone?
Osteoblasts are differentiated non-dividing cells that secrete osteoid, an organic matrix material, that becomes mineralized forming bone. These are the cells primarily responsible for building bone.
Osteocytes are osteoblasts that become trapped in lacunae by bony matrix. These cells still maintain the bone environment, but do not actively build or modify bone a significant amount.
Osteoclasts resorb bone by breaking down the crystalline matrix.
Deposition of the calcium phosphate salt hydroxyapatite leads to mineralization of the bony matrix.
Osteoblasts are differentiated non-dividing cells that secrete osteoid, an organic matrix material, that becomes mineralized forming bone. These are the cells primarily responsible for building bone.
Osteocytes are osteoblasts that become trapped in lacunae by bony matrix. These cells still maintain the bone environment, but do not actively build or modify bone a significant amount.
Osteoclasts resorb bone by breaking down the crystalline matrix.
Deposition of the calcium phosphate salt hydroxyapatite leads to mineralization of the bony matrix.
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Which of the following is NOT an example of a synarthrosis?
Which of the following is NOT an example of a synarthrosis?
A synarthrosis is a type of joint that permits little or no movement. Syndesmoses, synostoses, and symphyses are all examples of synarthroses. Syndesmoses are joined by an interosseous ligament. Joints between carpals and tarsals are mostly syndesmoses. Synostoses is a joint formed from the fusion of two bones, generally in an atypical fashion. Symphyses can be synarthroses or amphiarthorses and are characterized by a fibrocartilage band between bones, such as in the pubic symphysis.
A diarthrosis, also known as a synovial joint, is the most common joint type in humans and allows free bone movement. The knee and elbow are examples of a diarthroses or synovial joints.
A synarthrosis is a type of joint that permits little or no movement. Syndesmoses, synostoses, and symphyses are all examples of synarthroses. Syndesmoses are joined by an interosseous ligament. Joints between carpals and tarsals are mostly syndesmoses. Synostoses is a joint formed from the fusion of two bones, generally in an atypical fashion. Symphyses can be synarthroses or amphiarthorses and are characterized by a fibrocartilage band between bones, such as in the pubic symphysis.
A diarthrosis, also known as a synovial joint, is the most common joint type in humans and allows free bone movement. The knee and elbow are examples of a diarthroses or synovial joints.
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Which of the following cannot be used to describe a joint?
Which of the following cannot be used to describe a joint?
The joints, or articulations, of the body can be classified according to several different criteria. They can be named for their structure, type of motion, or range of motion.
Synovial joints are determined by the joint structure. All synovial joints are housed within a joint capsule and contain synovial fluid. Joints between long bones are almost always synovial joints.
Syndesmoses are defined by their range of motion, and have very small, if any, motility. Syndesmoses are joined by interosseous ligaments, such as those between the carpals of the wrist.
Saddle joints are defined the type of motion allowed at the joint. Saddle joints are biaxial, allowing flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction, but no axial rotation. The pollical (thumb) joint is a saddle joint. While a "swinging joint" would seem to indicate a joint defined by its type of motion, no such joint exists in anatomical terms.
The joints, or articulations, of the body can be classified according to several different criteria. They can be named for their structure, type of motion, or range of motion.
Synovial joints are determined by the joint structure. All synovial joints are housed within a joint capsule and contain synovial fluid. Joints between long bones are almost always synovial joints.
Syndesmoses are defined by their range of motion, and have very small, if any, motility. Syndesmoses are joined by interosseous ligaments, such as those between the carpals of the wrist.
Saddle joints are defined the type of motion allowed at the joint. Saddle joints are biaxial, allowing flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction, but no axial rotation. The pollical (thumb) joint is a saddle joint. While a "swinging joint" would seem to indicate a joint defined by its type of motion, no such joint exists in anatomical terms.
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In long bones, which of the following areas has the greatest metabolic activity during growth?
In long bones, which of the following areas has the greatest metabolic activity during growth?
Metaphysis: has the greatest metabolic activity, and contains the epiphyseal plate, which is replaced by the epiphyseal line
Diaphysis: mechanical support, site of bone marrow and muscle attachments
Apophysis: functions as a site for attachments of ligaments and tendons
Epiphysis: at the end of long bones
Periosteum: covers the diaphysis and parts of metaphysis.
Metaphysis: has the greatest metabolic activity, and contains the epiphyseal plate, which is replaced by the epiphyseal line
Diaphysis: mechanical support, site of bone marrow and muscle attachments
Apophysis: functions as a site for attachments of ligaments and tendons
Epiphysis: at the end of long bones
Periosteum: covers the diaphysis and parts of metaphysis.
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What is the medullary cavity?
What is the medullary cavity?
The medullary cavity is the bone marrow cavity contains red and/or yellow bone marrow; red bone marrow is the site of hematopoiesis. The end of a long bone is known as the epiphysis. Compact bone (cortical bone) is the dense outer layer of bone. The diaphysis is the shaft of a long bone.
The medullary cavity is the bone marrow cavity contains red and/or yellow bone marrow; red bone marrow is the site of hematopoiesis. The end of a long bone is known as the epiphysis. Compact bone (cortical bone) is the dense outer layer of bone. The diaphysis is the shaft of a long bone.
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Which of the following accurately describes a characteristic of fast twitch fibers located within a muscle?
Which of the following accurately describes a characteristic of fast twitch fibers located within a muscle?
Slow twitch fibers are located within muscles used for endurance and posture. They have a red coloring due to an abundance of myoglobin and participate in aerobic glycolysis. Slow twitch fibers contain large amounts of mitochondria and fewer glycolytic enzymes in order to enhance ATP production and maintain contractions for longe periods of time. Slow twitch fibers are associated with endurance fitness, such as running a marathon, and prolonged postural contractions, such as the muscles that keep the spine and neck erect.
Fast twitch fibers are located within muscles used for spurt and explosive excercises. They have a white coloring due to a lack in myoglobin and participate in anaerobic glycolysis. Fast twitch fibers contain fewer mitochondria and more glycolytic enzymes, aiding in rapid (but unsastainable) energy production. Fast twitch fibers are associated with speed and agility fitness, such as a sprinting a short distance.
Slow twitch fibers are located within muscles used for endurance and posture. They have a red coloring due to an abundance of myoglobin and participate in aerobic glycolysis. Slow twitch fibers contain large amounts of mitochondria and fewer glycolytic enzymes in order to enhance ATP production and maintain contractions for longe periods of time. Slow twitch fibers are associated with endurance fitness, such as running a marathon, and prolonged postural contractions, such as the muscles that keep the spine and neck erect.
Fast twitch fibers are located within muscles used for spurt and explosive excercises. They have a white coloring due to a lack in myoglobin and participate in anaerobic glycolysis. Fast twitch fibers contain fewer mitochondria and more glycolytic enzymes, aiding in rapid (but unsastainable) energy production. Fast twitch fibers are associated with speed and agility fitness, such as a sprinting a short distance.
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