Verbal & Nonverbal Communication - GRE Subject Test: Psychology

It is always of great help to know a large range of prefixes and suffixes when heading into standardized exams. Note that “para” means besides or outside of, therefore, paralinguistics are those vocal (excluding actual words) and non-vocal elements of communication that carry meaning. Elements of paralinguistics include pitch, rate of speech, fluency of speech, volume, and a host of signs and sounds that work to color what we are saying.

Prosody concerns itself with the elements of speech which are generated from interactions between units of language beyond phonemic elements (syllables, word play, etc.), and covers parts of language like tone, stress, and rhythm. Aprosodia, or the inability to recognize and generate these elements of speech, is often a classic sign of Asperger's Syndrome.

Kinesics is the study of all forms of nonverbal communication given by bodily motions and facial expressions, and is generally considered to be founded by Ray Birdwhistell in the 1950's. The common term "body language" was actually never used by Birdwhistell, as linguists of the day would not consider bodily expressions to meet the technical definition of a language.

Broadly defined as the space around a person which that person regards as psychologically theirs, personal space is a concept under the umbrella of "nonverbal communication" and is thought to be controlled or heavily influenced by the amygdala. Research has shown that individuals with bilateral lesion of the amygdala show little or no reaction when their personal space is violated.

Developed in 1999, the IPV is a 10-item scale designed to test the extent to which cultures prefer to be engaged in at least two simultaneous tasks. The broader study of the role of time in communication, particularly in nonverbal communication, is known as chronemics.

In high-context cultures, most of the rules of social engagement are assumed to be known by members, and thus much more nonverbal communication is utilized. This type of communication is easier among nondiverse cohorts and in cultures which strongly value tradition and history, which may explain its relative prevalence in the Middle East, Africa, South America and Asia. The U.S. and Germany are examples of low-context cultures, where rules are spelled out more explicitly.

The McGurk effect is a well-known illusion which takes place when a person hears a component of a word while watching (or reading) a visual component for a different word. The overall effect blends the two into a third sound interpreted by the brain. This effect seems to be extremely robust, as even those fully aware it is about to happen still experience the illusion. It is thought to originate from the early age at which we learn to blend visual and auditory stimulus when communicating verbally.

Semantic marking occurs when the clarity of a message and its reception is directly affected by one or more aspects of paralanguage within the message itself. In this case, hearing a reference to alcohol in a voice with childlike qualities is enough of an anomaly to register in the mind of the listener, and the message is "marked" as abnormal.

Meta-communication refers to any qualities of communication which are designed to impart information about how the message itself should be received, rather than the content of the message. Intonation, cadence, and even the context in which verbal communication occurs are all types of meta-communication, because each of these things can affect how a message is perceived. In contrast, repeating a message in another language does not (generally) change how a message is perceived, but simply expands whom can perceive it.

Generative grammar was first proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, and primarily focuses on the study of syntax as it relates to hierarchies of grammars.

Argyle and Dean co-developed affiliative conflict theory, the idea that people act to increase or reduce their levels of perceived intimacy with others in order to maintain a desired level of autonomy and intimacy. The mechanism through which people perform this balancing act, according to the theory, is nonverbal communication such as balancing levels of eye contact and conversational distance (a relationship Argyle and Dean studied extensively).

Ray Birdwhistell founded the study of kinesics in the 1950s, focusing largely on nonverbal communication using distance, eye contact, and body posture in response and relation to a conversational partner or perceived audience. He proposed that humans can see anywhere from 200,000 to 300.000 distinct facial expressions, and grouped responses to these reactions by function and purpose rather than by reaction or intent.

Some gestures, called conversational gestures, are always found to accompany speech, and are never found in the absence of verbal communication. Some hand movements such as tapping, scratching, or nervous fidgeting, are not considered gestures at all. Gestures are generally divided into symbolic and conversational gestures, with non-gesture movements sometimes called adapters. Some gestures, like shoulder shrugging and threatening with a raised fist, are considered universal.