Lifespan Development - GRE Subject Test: Psychology

Adolescence (age 12 to 18 years) is a time of identity crisis. At this stage, the child asks, "Who am I?" If the child can integrate values learned during previous childhood stages (trust, independence, impulse control, and intellectual curiosity), then they will have a strong identity and readiness to be an adult. If not, confusion can occur and they will be unable to make decisions about their role in life.

The regressed behaviors of this client are characteristic of the “trust vs. mistrust” stage. When a child experiences trauma or neglect during this stage they are unable to develop a secure sense of trust with himself or herself or their caregiver. This leaves them feeling either excessively dependent or excessively detached. The client also demonstrates early development behaviors such as thumb sucking, which are indicative of an emotional age of about 1 year old in Erickson's model.

The "industry vs. inferiority" stage most often occurs between the ages of 6 and puberty. It involves learning to master one's skills in order to develop a sense of competence. "Trust vs. mistrust" is the first stage that occurs during infancy, with the goal being to develop a sense of trust in the caregiver. The second stage is "autonomy vs. shame and doubt," which occurs between 1 and 3 years of age and involves developing a sense of independence. "Initiative vs. guilt" is the third stage, which occurs from ages 3 to 6 and involves assuming responsibility. "Integrity vs. despair" is the final stage of development and involves reflecting on one's life.

Psychologist James Marcia developed a theory of adolescent identity development. This theory focuses on the presence of crisis and commitment. Maria is in the "foreclosure" state, which is characterized by accepting a ready-made identity. Maria has not experienced an identity crisis, but has made a commitment. "Moratorium" involves the presence of a crisis but no commitment. "Identity diffusion" occurs when a person experiences neither a crisis nor commitment. "Identity achievement" involves successfully resolving a crisis and committing to an identity. Last, "differentiation" is not a term used in this theory.

Erik Erikson's theory includes 8 stages of psychosocial development that individuals go through from infancy to late adulthood. This theory assumes that individuals experience a crisis at each stage, and can either successfully or unsuccessfully complete a stage. Anne is in the “generativity vs. stagnation” stage, which includes being productive, giving back, and focusing on the future generation. On the other hand, “trust vs. mistrust” is the first stage, with the goal being to develop trust in caregivers. "Industry vs. inferiority" is the fourth stage and occurs between ages 5 and 12. The goal of this stage is to develop competence and a sense of pride in one's work. “Intimacy vs. isolation” is the sixth stage and occurs during early adulthood. The goal of this stage is to develop deep and meaningful relationships with others. “Ego integrity vs. despair” is the final stage and includes looking back on one's life and accomplishments.

Intimacy vs. isolation occurs between adolescence and middle age during emerging adulthood. During this stage, individuals are tasks with developing intimate relationship with others and commitment to another person. Identity vs. role confusion is the crisis that happens during adolescence. Trust vs. mistrust is the first crisis that occurs during the first year of life. Industry vs. inferiority occurs in childhood from ages 6-12.

Oral and anal fixation are part of Freud's psychosexual stages of development, and would occur during childhood. Erikson's theory of psychosocial development included stages throughout the lifespan. The last stage, integrity vs. despair, occurs during old age as the individual approaches death whereas generativity vs. stagnation is the conflict of middle age.

A child with anxious-resistant insecure attachment has a conditioned response to inconsistent caring from the parent. The child will become distressed when the parent leaves the room, but will then not approach the parent upon their return to the room. Secure attachment style is indicative of a child likely to explore a novel situation and grow up with a secure attachment style. The child who cries but still approaches likely has a disorganized attachment. The child that is not distressed about being left alone is exhibiting anxious-avoidant insecure attachment.

During the grade school years (age 6 to 12 years) the parenteral role is to stimulate curiosity and pleasure in intellectual success so that the child develops a sense of competence, as opposed to feelings of inferiority and expectations of failure.

Animism, or the belief that objects are alive and have personalities, is a common childhood belief, which was extensively studied by Jean Piaget. Piaget attributed animism to a failure of the child to distinguish its own interior world from its exterior world.

Gardner's "logical-mathematical" intelligence, the correct response, refers to the ability to analyze problems, solve mathematical equations, detect patterns, and think logically. Multiple theories of intelligence have been developed within the field of Intelligence Development. Howard Gardner is one of these theorists. He provides a seven-faceted model of intelligence that includes the types listed in the response choices. "Linguistic" is incorrect as it refers to the individual’s command of language. "Spatial" is incorrect because it refers to the individual’s ability to manipulate and work with physical objects. "Interpersonal" is also incorrect because it captures one’s ability to successfully navigate social interactions and relationships.

Bloom's Taxonomy contains six cognitive levels that a student progresses through as intellectual capacities increase. Here, they are listed in ascending order of complexity: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Bloom and his followers posited that by assessing a student's level of intellectual capacity, educators could best meet and test their students' learning development.

Bloom's Taxonomy contains six cognitive levels that a student progresses through as intellectual capacities increase. Here, they are listed in ascending order of complexity: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. According to Bloom, the level of "synthesis" is being exercised when the student is peicing together elments or parts to form a whole.

The Flynn Effect can be described as the significant statistical research finding that intelligence, as measured by standardized tests, has increased across time in first world nations. That is, the average scores on intelligence tests have been climbing over the last several decades. For example, where the average score on a standardized intelligence test in the 1950's was 100, examinees today would score on average closer to 105. This has required a restandardization of normative data and has led researchers to investigate the phenomenon.

Thurstone concentrated on only three areas of intelligence, which he called Primary Mental Abilities. His three Primary Mental Abilities are comparable to three of the four indices of the Weschler intelligence scales which have become the gold standard of intelligence testing; however, "working memory," which is measured by the Weschler set of tests, is not considered by Thurstone.

Similar to Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities, the Stanford-Binet intelligence test focuses on three and not four (as with the Weschler scales) primary areas of intelligence. The Stanford-Binet, however, includes working memory in place of perceptual speed whereas Thurstone includes perceptual speed to the exclusion of working memory. As such, "perceptual speed" is not an index of intelligence measured by the Stanford-Binet.

Bloom's Taxonomy contains six cognitive levels that a student progresses through as intellectual capacities increase. Here, they are listed in ascending order of complexity: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Bloom and his followers posited that by assessing a student's level of intellectual capacity, educators could best meet and test their students' learning development. In Bloom's 6-tiered model, "evaluation" is at the peak and refers to the ability to render informed judgements by effectively comparing and discriminating among ideas.

Spearman's theory of intelligence development is famous for its "g" factor, that is a general underlying intelligence that accounts for mental performance. This should not be confused with "s" factors which do not refer to Spearman's factors. Rather, "s" factors refer to specific intellectual abilities which build on the underlying "g" factor. The other theorists listed as possibilities all considered intelligence to be comprised of multiple facets with no single underlying factor.

It was Louis Thurstone who contributed to our understanding of intelligence development with his theory of Primary Mental Abilities. These Primary Mental Abilities included spatial and verbal Abilities as well as perceptual speed. Spearman is remembered for promoting an underlying general ("g") factor of intelligence. Binet devised a model of intelligence that included three primary facets, but his focus was on crystallized and fluid sources of knowledge as well as short-term memory. Sternburg also promoted a three-part model of intelligence, but his components were componential, experiential, and contexutal sources of intelligence.