Macromolecules - GRE Subject Test: Biology

The two most common polysaccharides found in plant cells are starch and cellulose. Starch is the primary source of energy storage, while cellulose is used to construct the plant's cell walls.

When a monosaccharide becomes cyclic in form, the anomeric carbon can have its hydroxyl group pointing in the same direction as the methoxy group, or oriented in the opposite direction. This orientation determines whether the sugar is considered alpha or beta.

Carbohydrates are linked together to form disaccharides and other polysaccharides through glycosidic linkages. A glycosidic linkage is one in where two sugar molecules are bridged by an oxygen atom. Peptide linkages are found between amino acids and phosphodiester bonds are found between nucleic acid monomers. Ionic bonds involve the complete transfer of one or more electrons from one species to another. Hydrogen bonds are weak intermolecular and intramolecular forces that contribute to the stability of many substances such as liquid water.

Glycogen and starch molecules are connected by alpha linkages. Glycogen and starch can be digested by humans because we have an enzyme capable of separating these linkages to produce monosaccharides. Cellulose on the other hand is connected through beta linkages. These beta linkages allow for the polysaccharide to form straight chains which can serve structural purposes such as plant cell walls. Cellulose, however, cannot be digested by humans because we do not have enzymes capable of severing these linkages.

Blood is an aqueous solution and will easily dissolve polar, hydrophilic molecules. Nonpolar molecules, however, do not easily exist in this solution and require a bound polar group, such as a carrier protein, to exist in equilibrium.

Proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids all contain polar groups, allowing them to dissolve in the blood. Lipids, however, are nonpolar and require transport proteins. Steroids are a class of lipids and will require protein assistance for transport in the blood.

Sucrose is a carbohydrate, glycine is a polar amino acid, and ATP is a polar nucleic acid derivative.

Amphipathic molecules contain both polar and nonpolar regions, making them an extremely diverse class with an array of functions. For example, bile is an amphipathic molecule whose nonpolar region interacts with fats and whose polar region interacts with the aqueous environment of the small intestine.

Most lipids are entirely nonpolar and hydrophobic. Phospholipids, however, are formed from a glycerol molecule bound to two hydrophobic fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic phosphate head. This structure allows phospholipids amphipathic properties. Most notably, phospholipids are able to interact with the aqueous environments in the cell cytosol and extracellular environment, while maintaining the hydrophobic region of the cell membrane that acts as a semipermeable barrier.

Triglycerides are considered nonpolar. Glutamate is an acidic amino acid with highly polar properties. Maltose is a six-carbon sugar (carbohydrate) and is highly polar.

Lipids have a variety of functions in the human body, one of which is the storage of energy for later use. This function is accomplished by triglycerides (also called triacylglycerols), which belong to the class of glycerolipids.

Fatty acids synthesized in the human body always have an even number of carbon atoms usually between 12 and 28. Odd-numbered fatty acid chains will occasionally be found in plants and marine animals.

A phospholipid is made up of two fatty acids and a phosphate group with an R-group attached to a glycerol backbone. The phosphate group allows for one end of the molecule to be polar while the fatty acids allow for the other part to be nonpolar. Phospholipids are a major component of the bilayered cellular membrane

DNA strands are composed of millions of nucleotides. As a result, it would be virtually impossible to find a single strand that did not have all four nucleotides.

Nucleotides combine in purine-pyrimidine pairs due to the sterically appropriate fit of the bases, as well as the preferred combination of hydrogen bonds between the two nucleotides. As a result, two purines would not be seen combined. This is due to both being too large when together, and the incorrect hydrigen bonding between their functional groups.

DNA and RNA share very similar structures, with two primary differences: DNA lacks a hydroxide group on the 2' carbon of the ribose sugar and RNA uses uracil in place of thymine.

Both DNA and RNA have phosphate groups attached to the 5' carbon of the sugar, which can be joined to the 3' carbon of an adjacent nucleotide by a phosphodiester bond. As a result, both RNA and DNA are read in the 5'-to-3' direction.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and guanosine triphosphate (GTP) are derived from adenine and guanine, two of the fundamental nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids, making them nucleic acid derivatives.

The correct answer is that RNA nucleotides have two hydroxide groups on the sugar, whereas DNA nucleotides have only one hydroxide group. RNA uses uracil in place of thymine; not DNA. Both DNA and RNA have five-carbon sugars and are bound together along the backbone by phosphodiester bonds. Though base pairing is more common in DNA (double-stranded RNA is less common), both utilize hydrogen bonding.

A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil), a pentose sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), and three phosphates. These nucleotide monomers can be strung together via phosphodiester linkages to form a polynucleotide. This polynucleotide can base pair with another polynucleotide through hydrogen bonding to form double-stranded DNA.

Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the energy required to begin the reaction (the activation energy). They do not have any direct effect on the change in free energy, nor do they provide extra energy to the system. Enzymes also cannot alter the substrate concentration. Catalytic action will never be able to influence the equilibrium constant or equilibrium concentrations of a reaction.

Enzymes are used to increase the rate of a reaction. This is accomplished by lowering the activation energy required for substrates to react, often by altering the transition state. Enzymes do not, however, increase the amount of products formed; they simply help the equilibrium be reached more quickly. In other words, enzymes change the rate of a reaction, but not the equilibrium.

Although it may seem counterintuitive, both the forward and reverse reaction rates are sped up by an enzyme. Without this happening, more product would be created by the enzyme than normal, and enzymes DO NOT increase the amount of products created in a system. Enzymes also do not affect the enthalpy of a reaction, so making a reaction more exothermic is not an acceptable answer.

The replisome is coded for by essential genes passed between bacteria. Without these proteins, a bacterial cell cannot form more cells. "-some" stands for a collection of proteins that function together, and "repli-" for replication. The TATA box is a DNA sequence involved in the indication of the start of a gene, chromosomes are collected strands of genetic material, the spliceosome removes introns from pre-mRNA, but this, along with all post translational modification, only occurs in eukaryotes. The cytosome is the part of the cell that is specialized for phagocytosis.

The Michaelis-Menten constant is temperature and pH dependent. It is the substrate concentration at which the rate is half of . Noncompetitive inhibitors alter the shape of an enzyme, slowing down the reaction rate without affecting . Competitive inhibitor bind to enzyme active sites, increasing the .

Helothermine is a peptide toxin that inhibits calcium channels in the cerebellar granule cells. The cerebellum is the part of the brain that controls voluntary muscle movements such as those in the limbs, and the toxin must be inhibiting very specifically to cause those two symptoms and not total paralysis or other problems.