Animal Biology - GRE Subject Test: Biology

The action potential is composed of key changes in voltage for the neuronal cell body. The resting voltage in the cell is negative, due to the action of the sodium-potassium pump. When an action potential reaches the cell, voltage-gated sodium channels open, and sodium ions rush into the cell. This raises the voltage inside the cell in a process called depolarization.

As the voltage in the cell rises, the sodium channels begin to close, and voltage-gated potassium channels begin to open. As potassium ions exit the cell, the voltage drops back down to negative once again. This process is called repolarization. It takes a bit longer for the potassium channels to close, which causes a temporary hyperpolarization of the cell; however, once they close and the cell will eventually return to the initial negative resting potential by action of the sodium-potassium pump.

There is a larger number of voltage-gated calcium channels near the synaptic cleft on the pre-synaptic neuron. As an action potential approaches the synaptic cleft, these voltage-gated calcium channels open and allow for a rapid influx of calcium. The sudden influx of calcium ions into the cell causes a release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

Sodium and potassium play key roles in establishing the resting membrane potential and propagating the action potential, but do not actually stimulate the release of the neurotransmitter.

Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft to cause a change in the excitability of the downstream neuron. Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter matching the description in the question stem. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter and serotonin is responsible for feelings of happiness. Cortisol and epinephrine are hormones, not neurotransmitters, thus they are released into the bloodstream, not the synaptic cleft.

Repolarization is one of the last steps of an action potential, where the cell potential of the neuron is made to be negative in value once again. This step is accomplished by the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels, which allows for potassium to exit the neuron.

Action potentials are unique in that they are a one-way transmission of impulses throughout the nervous system. Action potentials will always be the same amplitude for a given neuron, regardless of the stimulus which caused it; however, the stimulus must be sufficient enough to cross the threshold, or the action potential will not occur. It is because of this feature that action potentials are said to be "all or nothing" in nature.

An antibody is very specific and will only attach to one antigen. Once it does, the antibody can signal the pathogen or infected cell to be destroyed by macrophages and other phagocytic cells in the body, such as cytotoxic T-cells. The antibodies themselves cannot destroy the pathogen.

T-cells serve important functions in the communication and stimulation of antibody production, but do not actually produce antibodies.

Antibodies are part of the adaptive immune response, which means that they are formed later in an infection. Because both recognition sites have the same structure, they are responsive to only one type of antigen. They are located on the outside of B cells, and can be released freely into the plasma by plasma cells.

Placental crossing is done mainly by IgG antibodies. These fast-acting antibodies provide temporary immunity for the fetus until it is able to have its own immune system produce sufficient antibody amounts.

Many people have the misconception that arteries only carry oxygenated blood that has been pumped out fo the heart. The truth is that arteries are responsible for carrying all blood away from the heart, whether it be oxygenated or deoxygenated. For example, the aorta is an artery that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the tissues, however, the pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. Any vessel that travels away from the heart is classified as either an artery or an arteriole, regardless of the blood it contains.

Blood vessels can be constricted or dilated in order to adjust blood pressure and reroute blood to areas in need of nutrients and oxygen. This constriction is done by smooth muscle, which is primarily found wrapped around arterioles.

Arteries also have a thick lining of smooth muscle, but are generally too large in diameter to be useful in directing blood flow. Capillaries have no smooth muscle and cannot be used to direct blood. Venules may have small layers of smooth muscle, but are not nearly as effective as arterioles.

Action potentials are spontaneously conducted so that the heart can pump automatically, without necessary stimulation from the central nervous system. These spontaneous action potentials are created by a group of cardiac cells called the sinoatrial node. Because it determines the heart rate, the sinoatrial node is considered the pacemaker of the heart.

After generation by the sinoatrial node, action potentials will cause the atria to contract and travel to the atrioventricular node. The atrioventricular node introduces a delay, which prevents the ventricles from contracting during atrial systole, which could push blood backward from the ventricle to the atrium. The atria relax and the signal is passed from the atrioventricular node to the bundle of His in the atrioventricular septum before spreading to the ventricles and causing ventricular systole.

The heart has four valves, used to prevent backflow of blood during contraction of each chamber. The two atrioventricular valves separate the atria from the ventricles, and the two semilunar valves separate the ventricles from the exiting arteries. The right atrium and ventricle are separated by the tricuspid valve, while the left atrium and ventricle are separated by the bicuspid, or mitral, valve. The aortic semilunar valve separates the aorta from the left ventricle and the pulmonary semilunar valve separates the pulmonary arteries from the right ventricle.

The heart has two ventricles which pump blood out of the heart and to either the lungs or the rest of the body. The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary arteries which go to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta, which sends blood to the tissues of the body.

Veins are responsible for returning blood to the heart, while arteries take blood away from the heart. The two veins listed are the pulmonary vein and the inferior vena cava. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood to the heart and dumps it into the left atrium. The inferior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood to the heart and dumps it into the right atrium.

Once a committed cell begins to develop specialized functions, it is known as differentiation. Before a cell differentiates, it makes a commitment to a certain cell type, first by specification, which is reversible, and then by determination, which is irreversible. Once a cell is committed to a cell type, it undergoes differentiation to develop specific cell characteristics.

Induction is a process in which cells induce adjacent cells to commit to a certain cell type.

The correct answer is master transcription factors. The type of master transcription factor expressed in a cell depends on the ultimate cell type it will become. Master transcription factors have higher affinity for cell identity genes. Each cell type has a different profile of master transcription factors that are reliably expressed. Mediator facilitates binding and recuitment of many transcription factors. Chromatin remodelers change the epigenetic state in a cell, and pioneering transcription factors are the first factors to bind DNA, even in heterochromatin regions.

The correct answer is carbohydrates.

Salivary amylase can only digest carbohydrates. Proteases further along in the digestive pathway breakdown proteins, while lipases digest fats. Amino acids are the product of digested proteins.

Pepsinogen is released by chief cells into the stomach lumen. In the presence of hydrochloric acid (secreted by parietal cells), this inactive enzyme will be cleaved, creating pepsin. Pepsin is a protease responsible for breaking down proteins that enter the stomach.

Carbohydrates are digested by amylase enzymes, lipids are digested by lipases, and nucleic acids are digested by nucleases.

Bile is a salt solution used to emulsify fats in the small intestine in order to facilitate absorption. It is created by the liver, but stored in the gall bladder. During digestion, the bile is released from the gall bladder into the duodenum.

The stomach is mainly responsible for mechanical digestion, caused by smooth muscle contractions, and a small amount of protease function. The pancreas secretes a number of digestive enzymes into the duodenum to facilitate digestion of macromolecules. Neither organ is involved in the production of bile.