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During which of the following stages of meiosis is the ploidy of the cell equal to n (haploid)?
I. Telophase I, after nuclear envelopes reform
II. Metaphase II, while chromosomes are lined up on the equatorial plate
III. Anaphase II, immediately after separation of sister chromatids
IV. Metaphase I, while chromosomes are lined up on the equatorial plate
This question is a little tricky and depends entirely on the definition of when something is officially a chromosome. A sister chromatid is not officially considered a chromosome until being separated from its partner.
During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes have yet to separate, so ploidy is still 2n (diploid). Statement IV is false.
During telophase I, the homologous chromosomes have separated and the nuclear envelopes have reformed, effectively forming two haploid nuclei during telophase I. Statement I is true.
During metaphase II, the sister chromatids are still attached, so the cells are still haploid. Statement II is true.
During anaphase II, however, immediately after the sister chromatids are separated they are now considered individual chromosomes. This effectively increases ploidy back to 2n until the nuclear envelopes reform. Statement III is false.
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A normal somatic human cell contains 46 chromosomes. During anaphase of meiosis I, prior to reformation of the nuclear envelope, how many chromosomes are present in a human cell?
For this question it is important to know the distinction between the genetic material being separated in meiosis I versus meiosis II. During meiosis I homologous chromosomes are separated, and during meiosis II sister chromatids are separated. Reduction of ploidy therefore occurs during telophase I, after the nuclear envelope reforms (due to the segregation of homologous chromosomes). During anaphase I there are technically still 46 chromosomes in the cell, even though each contains two sister chromatids and have been pulled to different regions of the cell. The total amount of genetic material has not changed.
Note that during anaphase of meiosis II ploidy is also at 46 chromosomes. At this point, sister chromatids have been separated from each of the 23 chromosomes present, resulting in 46 separate genetic units. The cell is still considered haploid, since the homologous chromosomes are not present.
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Which event takes place in meiosis, but not in mitosis?
Meiosis has many key differences from mitosis, despite the fact that both are used to divide a parent cell into daughter cells. One of the main differences is that meiosis involves the separation of homologous chromosomes, which halves the chromosome number in the daughter cells. This event does not take place in mitosis, because both daughter cells are are still diploid following division.
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During what phase of meiosis does crossing over occur?
Meiosis results in genetically unique daughter cells due to the event of crossing over and the phenomenon of independent assortment. Crossing over takes place during prophase I when the homologous chromosomes come in contact with each other to form tetrads.
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Which of the following are true of meiosis?
During anaphase I, spindle fibers form and homologous chromosomes (each consisting of two chromatids) move toward opposite poles of the cell. During anaphase II, sister chromatids separate at their centromeres and are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell. Synapsis happens during prophase I, not anaphase I, as chromosomes condense and homologs align.
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Suppose X is the amount of DNA in a mature human cell that is not actively replicating. What amount of DNA would be found in a mature cell that has fully completed meiosis?
Gametes are the types of cells produced by meiosis. For example, a mature spermatozoan is a type of gamete. Adult cells are diploid, and through meiosis, gametes are haploid. Therefore, gametes have half of the genetic material of a mature cell. Thus, a gamete would be reflected with 0.5X as the amount of genetic material.
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During mitosis, what proteins are involved in the formation of the contractile ring?
The contractile ring is made up of actin and myosin-2 and is used to initiate cytokinesis. Polar and kinetochore microtubules have important functions during earlier stages of mitosis. Polar microtubules interact within the cytoplasm during metaphase and anaphase, while kinectochore microtubules directly attach to chromosome centromeres to facilitate separation. Dyenin is a motor protein that interacts with microtubules to aid in protein transport.
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Which phase of mitosis is characterized by the alignment of sister chromatids at the center of the cell?
During mitosis, sister chromatids will line up in the center of the cell so that they may be pulled to opposite ends by the spindle fibers. This lining up takes place in the second phase of mitosis: metaphase.
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Blocking which of the following processes is likely to directly interfere with cyclins' role to regulate the cell cycle?
Cyclin proteins fluctuate in level during the different stages of the cell cycle (except for Cyclin D). For example, Cyclin E regulates the entry into S phase. The expression of the cyclin E gene increases, which leads to higher Cyclin E protein levels in the cell. After the cell passes S phase, Cyclin E protein is actively destroyed by ubiquitination.
When Cyclins are bound to Cdks, they can regulate the activity of proteins that regulate processes like replication and microtubule formation; however, of the cellular processes listed, blocking ubiquitination would be the only process that would directly interfere with cyclins' role to regulate the cell cycle as cyclin proteins need to be destroyed at the correct time to allow the cell cycle to progress.
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What proteins do cyclins regulate and how do these proteins carry out their catalytic activities during cell cycle progression?
Kinases are proteins that phosphorylate their substrates, often activating these substrates. In the context of cell cycle progression, cyclins interact with cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and activate the CDK kinase domain to phosphorylate substrates and promote cell cycle progression. CDK inhibitors interact with CDKs to inhibit the CDK kinase domain from phosphorylating substrates.
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During what stage of cellular mitosis do the microtubules attach to the centromeres to eventually align the chromosomes?
The correct answer is prometaphase, in which the nuclear membrane dissolves and the microtubules attach to the centromeres. Interphase occurs before mitosis begins, and includes S phase, where the chromosomes are duplicated. In anaphase, the chromosome duplicates are separated by the microtubules. In telophase, cell division begins with the newly separated chromosome copies.
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The contractile ring constricts the cell membrane to form a cleavage furrow during cytokinesis. What is the contractile ring composed of?
The correct answer is myosin and actin filaments. Myosin hydrolyzes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and moves along the actin filaments previously assembled at the cell cortex, constricting the actin and the plasma membrane. Lamin is found in the nucleus and gives structural support to the nuclear membrane. Tubulin and microtubules are components of the cell cytoskeleton.
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A certain line of cells has a mutated, non-functioning copy of the enzyme DNA ligase. What portion of the DNA would be affected by this mutated enzyme?
DNA ligase is an enzyme used to link DNA via the formation of a phosphodiester bond. During lagging strand synthesis, DNA ligase connects the okazaki fragments. Without this enzyme functioning properly, the lagging strand would not be completed.
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During which phase of the cell cycle are cells considered quiescent?
The cell cycle is divided into several phases, with checkpoints that control transitions between phases of the cell cycle. The G1 checkpoint (restriction checkpoint) is the first of these barriers, and requires adequate quantities of the cyclin protein in order for the cell to continue maturing in preparation for division. When a cell fails to express cyclin, the cell reverts to an inactive quiescent state and stops preparations for division. This state is known as the G0 phase. The G0 phase can be overcome if cyclin is reintroduced to the cell environment.
The G1 and G2 phases are involved in protein production and organelle replication. DNA replication occurs during the S phase, between G1 and G2. The cell enters the M phase, mitosis, after passing a checkpoint that follows the G2 phase. G0, G1, S, and G2 phases are all considered part of interphase.
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The expression of which of the following protein classes is normally associated with G1 phase of the cell cycle?
I. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
II. Caspases
III. Nucleic acid polymerases
The two main protein types that are crucial to cell cycle regulation are cyclins and CDKs (cyclin-dependent kinases). CDKs are expressed at relatively stable levels at all phases of the cell cycle. Their regulatory partners are cyclins which, as the name suggests, are expressed only when they are needed to help activate a specific CDK and progress the cell to a new phase of the cell cycle. All of the choices are CDKs, and should be expressed during G1 of the cell cycle. Caspases are proteins that are involved in apoptosis. Nucleic acid polymerases would be expected to have elevated activity during S phase of interphase during which DNA is duplicated.
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What is the primary purpose of the S phase of the cell cycle?
Interphase is composed of three subphases: G1, S, and G2. While the two G phases are dedicated to cellular growth and organelle replication, the S phase is used to replicate the genetic material of the cell.
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In the cell cycle, what is primarily responsible for cell cycle progression from G2 to M phase and is also referred to as the maturation promoting factor when in complex with cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1)?
The correct answer is cyclin B. Cyclin B concentration in the cell spikes at the transition from G2 phase to mitosis/meiosis. Cyclin E controls pre-replication complex assembly which makes chromatin replicable during G1 to S phase. Cyclin A then replaces cyclin E in the nucleus, promoting DNA replication. Cyclin D is also important in driving G1/S phase transition and is sustained in proliferating cells the longest of the cyclins.
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Which cyclin remains consistently expressed starting in G1 phase through mitosis to regulate cell cycle progression?
The correct answer is Cyclin D. This cyclin is expressed throughout the cell cycle, however, it directly regulates the transition from G1 to S phase. Cyclin A is also involved in the G1 to S phase transition and is expressed into the G2 phase. Cyclin E is expressed during the transition from G1 to S phase. Cyclin B is expressed during the transition from G2 to mitosis and regulates this progression. There is no Cyclin F in the cell cycle.
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