Identification by Function - Biochemistry

Carbohydrates are first lines of energy source for tissues. If there is a decrease in the amount of carbohydrates, then other energy sources such as fatty acids and proteins are mobilized and undergo metabolism to produce energy. One of the byproducts of fatty acid metabolism are ketone bodies; therefore, a decrease in carbohydrates will lead to an increase in fatty acid metabolism and, subsequently, an increase in ketone bodies.

Glycogen stores will be depleted because liver will respond to the decreased glucose levels and break down glycogen to component glucose molecules. Low carbohydrate concentration will decrease blood glucose levels.

Pyruvate carboxylase is an enzyme involved in gluconeogenesis, which is the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. This enzyme aids in the formation of PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate) from pyruvate. It converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate in the mitochondrion, requiring the hydrolysis of one molecule of ATP.

Spinghomyelin has a head group of phosphotidylcholine, which makes sphingomyelin a phospholipid. None of the other lipids have phosphates, and therefore are not phospholipids.

To answer this question we need to recall the structure of the different macromolecules. Proteins are made up of amino acids, nucleic acids are made up of nitrogenous bases, phosphate groups and 5-carbon sugars, carbohydrates are made up of monosaccharides, and most of the lipids are made up of a three-carbon glycerol molecule attached to varying numbers of fatty acids and other molecules. If there are three fatty acids attached to three of the carbons of glycerol, then it is classified as a triglyceride. If there are two fatty acids and a phosphate group, then it is a phospholipid; therefore, the molecule mentioned in this question is phospholipid. Recall that phospholipids are mainly found in cellular membranes, such as plasma membrane.

Note that certain lipids such as cholesterol and sphingolipids don’t have 3-carbon backbone molecule with fatty acids. They are organized in a different manner. Cholesterol is a ring structure with four rings and hydroxyl group whereas sphingolipids are synthesized from sphingosine.

Recall that there are four main nonpolar vitamins (lipids): vitamins A, D, E, and K. Vitamin A is an important vitamin for proper functioning of eye and can be found in foods containing carotene, such as carrots. Vitamin D is involved in the absorption of key minerals such as iron, calcium, and phosphate. It is usually obtained through sun exposure. Vitamin E is an antioxidant and is used to prevent the effects of reactive oxygen species (free radicals). Finally, Vitamin K is a clotting factor that is essential to repair and clot damaged endothelial walls and tissue.

Decreased levels of lipids will actually increase the absorption of these essential lipid vitamins. The body will try to absorb even the slightest amount of vitamins in diet to compensate for the depletion of these vitamins; therefore, the rate of absorption of Vitamin D will increase.

Phospholipids, as the name implies, require a phosphate head group attached to two fatty acid tails. Their polar phosphate head groups and non-polar fatty acid tails are perfect for a bi-layer membrane, where 2 layers of phospholipids are arranged such that their non-polar tails face each other and their polar phosphate head groups face outwards.

The correct answer is "sterols." The most common sterol in animals is cholesterol, which is an important structural component of cell membranes and the precursor to steroid hormones. Acetyl-CoA is not a lipid but is a precursor to cholesterol itself. The other answers are lipids with other functions. While phospholipids are an important part of cell membranes, they are not precursors to steroid hormones.

Nucleic acids are a type of macromolecules that make up the genetic material. This is their main function. Unlike the other three macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins), nucleic acids are not used for energy production; therefore, the results stated in this question don’t seem valid.

Both DNA and RNA are made up of nucleic acids. Recall that all nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides, which are made up of phosphate group, nitrogenous base, and pentose sugar. The difference between DNA and RNA is that the pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose whereas pentose sugar in RNA is ribose. Also, RNA contains uracil nitrogenous base instead of the thymine found in DNA.

The main function of nucleic acid is to form the genetic material. Recall that DNA is utilized to make RNA (also made up of nucleic acid) during transcription. There are three kinds of RNA molecules: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA. mRNA is used to synthesize proteins, tRNA facilitates protein synthesis, and rRNA makes up ribosomes; therefore, nucleic acids are important for formation of ribosomes. Remember that nucleic acids are not used to synthesize ATP or store energy in any form. ATP itself is a nucleoside triphosphate, not a nucleic acid.

This question is asking us to identify a false function of nucleotides. As such, we'll need to consider each answer choice, one by one, in order to see which are true and which aren't.

One function that most people would immediately associate with nucleotides is the carrying of genetic information. In DNA, the order of nucleotides is what makes genes unique in terms of what proteins they code for. DNA sequences also play a regulatory role in gene expression, but ultimately, the sequence of nucleotides is what allows hereditary information to be passed to offspring.

Some of the other functions of nucleotides may not be readily apparent, but we'll go through each of them. For one thing, nucleotides can act as energy carriers. For instance, ATP is a nucleotide containing three phosphate groups along with the sugar ribose and the nitrogenous base adenine. ATP is the main energy-carrying molecule in cells, as it provides energy for many chemical reactions.

Nucleotides can also act as enzyme cofactors, otherwise called coenzymes. These coenzymes are an important component of the enzymes in which they are associated with, and help the enzyme to perform its proper function. Some examples of nucleotide coenzyems are nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and Coenzyme A (CoA), as in acetyl-CoA, an important intermediate in oxidative phosphorylation.

Additionally, the cyclic nucleotide cyclic-AMP (cAMP) is an important second messenger in signal transduction cascades that involve G proteins. During the cascade, levels of cAMP increase and lead to the activation of protein kinase A (PKA), which subsequently goes on to phosphorylate many other proteins within the cell.

Finally, it's important to take note of the false function of nucleotides (and the correct answer). Nucleotides do not play a role in maintaining the fluidity of cell membranes. Rather, a lipid molecule called cholesterol is responsible for this function.

The name ATP (adenosine triphosphate) tells you much of what you need to answer this question. It contains the base adenine, and three phosphate units. The phosphate units store the majority of its energy through phosphoanhydride bonds. ATP is also regarded as a short term energy molecule, and is readily used by the body. Finally, ATP contains a five-carbon ribose, not a six-carbon glucose ring.

Proteins are the most diverse group of macromolecule. They can be fibrous (structural) or globular (receptors, enzymes, signaling molecules, and more).

Cysteine (C) is the only amino acid of the group to possess an uncharged R group at normal blood pH levels.

Arginine (R) and lysine (K) have positively charged R groups, and are considered basic. Aspartate (D) and glutamate (E) have negatively charged R groups, and are considered acidic.

Alanine (A) is the only hydrophobic amino acid in the group.

Serine (S), threonine (T), glutamine (Q), and asparagine (N) have polar, uncharged R groups.

Low-density lipoproteins have the highest content of cholesterol and cholesterol esters. There are essentially five classes of blood lipoproteins: chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoproteins, intermediate-density lipoproteins, low-density lipoproteins, and high-density lipoproteins. Chylomicrons have the lowest density of the five classes of lipoproteins. This is because the have the highest proportion of triglycerides and the least lowest proportion of protein. Very-low-density lipoproteins are a bit more dense than chylomicrons; however, the relative amount of triglycerides is still high. Intermediate-density lipoproteins which are formed from the very-low-density lipoproteins have a higher density than very-low-density lipoproteins due to the fact that they have less than half of the amount of triglycerides as very-low-density lipoproteins. Low-density lipoproteins have the highest amount of cholesterol and an even lesser amount of triglycerides than intermediate-density lipoproteins. Lastly, high-density lipoproteins are the densest of the lipoproteins due to the fact that they have the highest amount of protein in relation to the amount of triglycerides they contain.

The dietary intake of carbohydrate, in excess of the fuel requirement of the liver, leads to their conversion into triacylglycerols. These triacylglycerols are packaged into very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL's) and released into the circulation for delivery to the various tissues (primarily muscle and adipose tissue) for storage or production of energy through oxidation. VLDL's are, therefore, the molecules formed to transport endogenously derived triacylglycerols to extra-hepatic tissues. The fatty acid portion of VLDL's is released to adipose tissue and muscle in the same way as for chylomicrons, through the action of lipoprotein lipase.

A cell's necessity for cholesterol as a part of the cell membrane is accomplished by two ways: either it is synthesized from within the cell by the cell, or it is supplied by low-density lipoproteins and chylomicrons. The dietary cholesterol that goes into chylomicrons is supplied to the liver by the interaction of chylomicron remnants with the remnant receptor. In addition, cholesterol synthesized by the liver can be transported to extra-hepatic tissues if packaged in very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL's). In the circulation VLDLs are converted to low-density liporoteins through the action of lipoprotein lipase.

Very-low-density lipoprotein (LDL) triglycerides are broken down by lipoprotein lipase forming intermediate density lipoproteins. Intermediate density lipoproteins can either be brought into the liver through a receptor-mediated event or it may be further digested to form low density lipoproteins. LDL may be brought into the liver also by a receptor-mediated even in the liver.

High density lipoproteins (HDL's) are converted into spherical lipoprotein particles through the accumulation of cholesterol esters. This accumulation converts nascent HDL to HDL2 and HDL3. Any free cholesterol present in chylomicron remnants and intermediate-density lipoproteins can be esterified through the action of the HDL-associated enzyme, lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT). LCAT is synthesized in the liver and so named because it transfers a fatty acid from the second carbon position of lecithin to the hydroxyl group on the third carbon of cholesterol, generating a cholesterol ester and lysolecithin. The activity of LCAT requires interaction with apoA-I, which is found on the surface of HDLs.