Challenges to Political-Territorial Arrangements - AP Human Geography

Antarctica is not owned by any sovereign nation, but many different countries around the world have claimed all or part of the territory in their recent history. Some of the biggest claims have been made by Norway, Russia, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Argentina, but none of these claims are internationally respected or accepted.

Hadrian’s Wall once served as the final frontier of the far northern reaches of the Roman Empire. It separated civilized Britons from the barbarian Picts and Gauls. In the years since it’s significance as a political boundary has waned and it is now located entirely within the territory of England. Because it is no longer a political boundary, but once was, it is called a “relic boundary.”

In a theocracy the government is presumed to be divinely ordained by God. The highest law of the land is the law of God (in whatever that state’s religion is). Theocracies were more common in the past, but many still exist in the world today. And, many more countries which are nominally democracies or autocracies nonetheless have elements of theocracy.

Puerto Rico came into American possession in 1898, following American victory over the Spanish in the Spanish-American War. For a time it was administered as a territory of the United States; however, in the 1950s its status was changed to that of a commonwealth territory. The meaning of this is controversial and often debated, but it essentially means that Puerto Rico retains autonomy in some areas but is under the control of the American government in other areas.

Taiwan is an island off the coast of mainland China. In 1949, following his defeat in the Chinese Civil War, the nationalist Chiang Kai-Shek established his democratic China in Taiwan. For almost three decades this was the China that was recognized by most of the western world, whereas communist mainland China was considered illegitimate. Following the normalization of relations between China and the west in the wake of the death of Mao Zedong mainland China became recognized as the “real and legitimate” China. Taiwan exists in a kind of grey area in the minds of many people, although is considered part of China by the mainland Chinese government. It is called “Chinese Taipei” by many western governments out of a sort of diplomatic necessity.

Let's begin with separate definitions of the two entities. A state is similar to a country, in that it is a sovereign, bounded territory with its own government. Meanwhile a nation is a group of people with a shared culture and history. Neither is permanent, since a state can change its borders, and a nation can adjust its identity. Furthermore, nationhood is often tied powerfully to a piece of land, just as much as a state. Similarly, a state as much a product of history and people as a nation is. Thus the best description is the closest to our primary definitions: that a state is a political determination of sovereignty defined by its boundaries, while a nation is defined by its people.

A centripetal force in politics is any action that unites the people of a nation as one singular political unit. Events that create division or push people in a nation away from each other is known as a centrifugal force. A classic example of a centripetal force is any kind of attack on a nation, as it usually serves to create a mentality that the entire country was attacked.

A forward capital is a symbolically relocated capital city, usually because of either economic or strategic reasons. The former capital of Brazil, Rio de Janeiro, was located on the coast, and the residents of the interior felt distant from the government. The Brazilian government built a new capital, Brasilia, in the heart of the Amazon rainforest to try to unite the country. All the other capitals were not made capitals for this reason.

Nationalistic forces that bind a country together are called “centripetal forces.” Common examples of “centripetal forces” include a shared sense of common history, a shared language, reliable national institutions, and government legitimacy. The opposite of “centripetal forces” are “centrifugal forces,” which divide a country.

The term “Balkanization” comes from the Balkans region of Southeastern Europe. For many hundreds of years, the Balkans have been home to a large number of disparate and often hostile nationalities, usually governed under the administration of one empire (Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Yugoslavian). In the 1990s, this all disintegrated as each nationality sought its own state and control over the other nationalities. The term “Balkanization” has come to mean the hostile fragmentation of a large state into several smaller countries. Although it does not technically have to be wholly hostile, it generally is.

“Centrifugal forces” are forces within a country that work to pull that country apart. They are more common in larger states, particularly states that contain a large number of different nationalities competing for control and/or self-determination.

A “forward-thrust capital” is a capital that is deliberately located, or relocated, to a specific region within a country. Islamabad in Pakistan and Brasilia in Brazil are the two most notable examples of “forward-thrust capitals."

For much of Brazil’s history, its economic development has been largely concentrated in the coastal regions, and more specifically in the southeastern coastal region where Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paolo, and other wealthy Brazilian cities are located. In an effort to accelerate the growth of the interior of the country, and to further unify the disparate regions of the vast Brazilian territory, the government moved the capital from Rio to Brasilia in 1960.

Quebec is the French-speaking province of Canada that contains the important cities of Montreal and Quebec City. Due to its status as a majority French-speaking province within an English-speaking state Quebec has many distinct cultural features that distinguish it from the rest of Canada. Quebec routinely seeks self-determination through referendums and political movements. After a very slim referendum victory in 1998, support for the separatist Bloc Quebecois has slipped, as has that party's power in the national parliament.

Centripetal forces pull a country together- like a common language, shared culture, or spirit of nationalism do. Centrifugal forces pull a country apart- often ethnic or ideological differences, but geographic features like mountain ranges as well, since they physically divide people within the country and can make communication difficult.

Gerrymandering refers to the process wherein political officials redraw electoral districts to favor a certain political party, ethnic group, coalition, or social class. The process can be done either by "packing" districts with specific kinds of voters or by drawing lines so as to create districts which have small advantages in voter numbers. Gerrymandering intentionally creates uneven representation and is usually seen as a negative process.

Gerrymandering is the practice of manipulating the layout of voting districts in order to give particular groups greater voting power while concentrating the voting power of opposing groups.

Gerrymandering occurs when governments choose electoral boundaries to favor one particular party. Electioneering is to take part in the activities of a campaign. State formation and district formation are not related to gerrymandering. Racial steering is persuading members of a certain race to live with people of their own race, maintaining the homogeneity of neighborhoods.

The breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s was fueled by both the collapse of Yugoslavia's communist regime and the many divisions between the various constituent states. Ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences had been problematic under communist rule, but exploded after the dissolution of the communist state thanks to new paramilitary, nationalist organizations. International groups were slow to respond to the multilayered crisis, as many outside organizations saw it as a series of civil wars.