Domestic and Foreign Policies - AP European History

Frederick I was the last Duke of Prussia and the first King of Prussia. Due to the ever-expanding size and power of Prussia he felt simply being a Duchy no longer reflected the importance of Prussia. As such an upgrade to a Kingdom was ordered.

Catherine was Born in Germany to her father, Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was also a Prussian General. Her cousins went on to be Kings of Sweden while she was married off to Peter III of Russia in order to build relations between Prussia and Russia.

Sigismund II died with no heirs and thus his dynasty ended. Before he died though, he declared that Poland and Lithuania would transition to a system of elected monarchs after his death rather than finding a new royal family.

The First Moroccan Crisis took place in 1905 when the German Kaiser visited Morocco and declared himself in support of Moroccan independence. This was seen as a direct challenge to French control over the territory and almost led to war. At a conference to decide the issue, Germany found that it was supported only by Austria-Hungary and that Britain, Italy, Russia, and the United States (as well as several other countries) all supported French claims.

Peter was an avid academic and loved the modern ways of Western Europe. He went on an undercover trip around Europe to observe the ways of the Dutch, English, French, and Austrians. This led him to desire these modern ways for Russia, so he used his power as Czar to force the nation to westernize.

The "Auld Alliance" was a later term to denote the era between 1295, when John Balliol of Scotland and Philip IV of France formed an alliance against Edward I of England, and 1603, when James VI of Scotland united the crowns of Scotland and England as James I of England. The alliance was based on each country's long-standing issues with England, which often drew one country into the other's conflicts with the English monarchy.

Following the reign of Philip II, Spain went into a decline after experiencing a "siglo de oro" (golden century). The expulsion of Jews and Muslims may have contributed. Spain began to experience heavy inflation during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; a growing population and demand most likely contributed to this inflation, and some historians believe that increased silver bullion imports from Spain's colonies further contributed. Finally, Spain's involvement in religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries contributed to its decline, in part because they were so costly. In Spain's war against England, the famed Spanish Armada was defeated in 1588, though the war continued to drag on. Additionally, the Spanish-controlled Netherlands were in revolt through the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, culminating in a free Dutch Republic in 1648. Note, however, that Spain's exploration and colonization efforts during the sixteenth century were highly successful, with many colonies in North and South America, as well as the Philippines in Asia.

Perestroika and glasnost were two reform movements initiated during the last communist administration to govern the Soviet Union, led by Mikhail Gorbachev. Perestroika was the name given to the policy of economic reform that allowed for the development of rudimentary capitalism, and glasnost was the policy of political reform designed to provide openness and governmental transparency.

Margaret Thatcher was the leader of the British Conservative Party for much of the 1980s. Her policy of Thatcherism defined British conservatism at the time. She wanted to scale back Britain’s welfare state and lower taxes for the wealthiest people in Britain. She did a great deal to fix the British economy, but is widely despised in many sections of British society for her policies that greatly harmed the British working class and the British welfare state.

The Soviet policy of glasnost was initiated in 1985 during the administration of Mikhail Gorbachev. It was designed to provide openness and transparency in government by loosening the previously tight restrictions on freedom of the press. It was accompanied by perestroika, a restructuring of the Soviet economy to provide rudimentary capitalism.

The Paris Charter of 1990 was an attempt by the governments of Western Europe, the United States, and Canada to seize upon the demise of the Soviet Union and ensure the transition of Eastern European countries into the new world order. The nations of Western Europe wanted to integrate the newly-independent nations of Eastern Europe into their ideological framework of capitalism, democracy, and individual liberty.

Whilst the European Union frequently divides public opinion in all of these countries, support in Germany is usually much stronger than it is in France, Great Britain, and Italy. Switzerland, famous for its neutrality, is not even a member of the European Union.

The Holy Alliance was formed in the wake of the Napoleonic wars in Europe. Napoleon had launched a continent-wide revolution as he completely remade the legal systems of the countries he conquered with his Civil Code and further destabilized European politics by ushering in the era of arming the masses. The reactionary powers in Austria, Prussia, and Russia feared that, despite Napoleon's ultimate defeat, revolutionary wars would continue to plague Europe. The three core members pledged to offer aid in putting down revolutions across Europe. The Holy Alliance would play an important part, for instance, in putting an end to the revolutions of 1848.

In the late 1930s, Adolph Hitler, as leader of the Nazi Party and Chancellor of Germany, sought to annex the German-speaking lands that were not under German control. Many nations were worried about Hitler's aggressiveness and wanted to avoid another World War, and British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain followed a policy of Appeasement, which sought to accede certain things to Germany while avoiding war. Chamberlain famously stated in 1938, after the Munich Pact, that he had achieved "peace in our time." Nazi Germany would invade Poland and start World War II on September 1, 1939.

The primary purpose of the Congress of Vienna was to ensure a balance of powers among the European states in the aftermath of the defeat of Napoleon.

Mercantilism was the dominant economic philosophy of Europe during the eras of global colonization. The colonizing powers sought to strengthen their own country and colonies at the expense of their rivals through methods such as high tariffs on imports, government subsidies for domestic products, forbidding trade with certain countries, and government-mandated monopolies.

Neville Chamberlain followed the policy of "appeasement," believing that Hitler would tone down German aggression if given the territory he wanted. Chamberlain resigned from the office of Prime Minister 1940, after the obvious failure of appeasement seen in the beginning of World War II.

The Edict of Nantes, decreed in 1598 by Henry IV of France, gave French Protestants (Huguenots) many rights in French society, despite the nation's majority Catholic population. This had the effect of diminishing the persecution of French Protestants in France.

Following the Wars of Religion Henry wanted to avoid further internal strife like France had just seen. He believed the best way was to centralize power with one monarch that had complete and total control over all of France. He achieved this by largely stripping the French nobility of its powers.