Transition to Republicanism - Ancient History: Rome

Plebeian tribunes were the primary representation of the common people of Rome in the government of the Roman Republic. Plebeian tribunes were appointed to represent the interests of the plebeian class and wielded a considerable amount of political power, particularly towards the end of the history of the Roman Republic. The most significant, and first, political power of the plebeian tribunes was the ability to veto decisions made by consuls and magistrates. This was a significant check that the plebeians had on the power of the patricians.

Consuls were the highest elected officials in the Roman Republic. Two consuls were appointed at one time to serve concurrently for terms of one year. They had numerous responsibilities, including leading the armies of the Roman Republic in times of war. They were more likely to be patricians (noblemen) than plebeians. They did not, however, generally have dictatorial levels of power. Rome sometimes did require temporary dictators, in times of war or chaos, but these dictators were distinct from consuls.

The Tribune of the Plebs was created in the early years of the Roman Republic, around 495 BCE. It was the result of class tensions between the ruling patricians and the relatively powerless plebeians. These class tensions would continue for at least another two centuries (and essentially throughout the entire history of the Roman Republic), but the Tribune of the Plebs was in existence for almost all of these struggles. The Tribune of the Plebs was capable of taking legislative action, but initially only the plebeians were obligated to follow these “plebiscites.”

The Conflict of Orders is the name given to a prolonged class struggle between the "patricians" (aristocrats) and plebeians (common people) in the Roman Republic. It began in the early years of the Roman Republic when the plebeians, feeling excluded from the political process and persecuted, rebelled against the authority of the patricians. Over a period of time lasting more than a century, the plebeians would slowly gain more and more rights for themselves and eventually gained access to political participation and government.

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were brothers who served as plebeian tribunes in the second century BCE. They were both populares, which means they achieved political power through the support of the common people and the assemblies. They are both remembered for their attempts to improve the lives of poor plebeians in the Roman Republic. Tiberius tried to accomplish this by taking land away from the richest members of society and redistributing it to the poor. Gaius went even further than his brother in his attempted reforms, but his actions eventually led to the outbreak of the Social War and civil war in the Roman Republic.

The armies of the Roman Republic were generally divided according to wealth and social status. Before the Marian Reforms of 107 BCE opened up military service to all members of Roman society, an individual had to be sufficiently wealthy to join the Roman military. Criteria for joining included being a member of the taxpaying classes and the ownership of substantial property.

The Centuriate Assembly was one of the governing bodies of the Roman Republic. The Centuriate Assembly is so named because it divided the Roman population into one hundred groups, each with their own representative in the assembly. The Centuriate Assembly was the most powerful assembly for most of the history of the Roman Republic. The Centuriate Assembly was responsible for declaring war and was the only governing body which could elect magistrates like praetors, consuls, and quaestors.

In the very early years of the Roman Republic, power and wealth was concentrated in the hands of the landowning aristocratic class, called the patricians. The plebeians, the common people of Rome, had little political power and were subject to forced enslavement and unequal protection before the law. The patricians and plebeians competed for political power throughout the history of the Roman Republic. One notable incident occurred with the Secession of the Plebs in 494 BCE (which began the two centuries long Struggle of Orders). The Plebeians basically abdicated responsibility for the maintenance of the city and carried out something like a “general strike.” This, most significantly, included the threat to withhold military service and force the patricians to fight to defend themselves.

Tiberius Gracchus was a populares politician and tribune in the second century BCE. He is most notable for his failed attempts at land reform within the Roman Republic — specifically his attempts at confiscating land from the wealthy and redistributing it among the poor. Tiberius was opposed by most of the powerful factions within Rome and was eventually murdered on the orders of the Roman Senate.

A plebiscite was a law enacted by the Council of Plebeians in the Roman Republic. Generally, the law applied only to common people — the plebeians — and was not applicable to the aristocratic class, the patricians.

Magistrates were elected or appointed officials in the Roman Republic, who were chosen to carry out specific functions of the Roman government. Examples of magistrates in the Roman Republic include censors, quaestors, praetors, aediles, and consuls.

The government of the Roman Republic was established with consideration for the need for checks and balances and separation of powers. The term “tripartite” refers to the three different locales of political power in the Roman Republic — the Senate, the Consuls, and the Assemblies. The government of the Roman Republic was established in this manner in an attempt to prevent tyranny and to discourage one man or one group from dominating all of Roman society.

In the Roman Republic there were many different types of assemblies, all of which had different degrees of power. Some assemblies were comprised of all Roman citizens and were responsible for electing magistrates, enacting laws, and conducting legal trials. Other assemblies included councils, like the Council of Plebeians, which passed laws that only affected the plebeians (common people of Rome). The authority of various assemblies waxed and waned throughout the history of the Roman Republic, as different governing institutions squabbled with one another for political power.

The Tribal Assembly was one of the democratic governing bodies of the Roman Republic. It was comprised of a small number of urban “tribes” and a large number of rural “tribes.” These “tribes” were groups of citizens organized on the basis of where they lived. The Tribal Assembly had the power to vote on certain legislative issues, appoint lower ranking magistrates, and try certain judicial cases.

The Secession of the Plebeians took place in 494 BCE. It is best described as a general strike, organized by the common people of Rome, to gain political power. There were other plebeian secessions throughout the history of the Roman Republic, such as the one carried out in 449 BCE, which was done to ensure the patricians would enact the Law of Twelve Tables. The plebeians would “secede” from the Republic in order to pressure the patricians into accepting reforms that would make the lives of plebeians better.