Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BCE) - Ancient History: Egypt

The first full sentence written in hieroglyphics dates back to the Second Dynasty of the Early Dynastic Era. This period gave Egypt a strong sense of identity which included among other things the introduction of complex irrigation systems and centralized power in the form of a king. While hieroglyphics existed before the Early Dynastic Period, they are considered photo-hieroglyphics.

The oldest known example of Egyptian hieroglyphics can be found on several memorial palettes, which were created to eulogize and memorialize the dead. These palettes have been dated back to 3400 BCE. Historians have been able to trace the development of hieroglyphic writing from this starting date and have discovered that hieroglyphics remained in continual use until around the eleventh century CE. This lifespan of over four thousand years makes Egyptian hieroglyphics the longest-utilized language in known history.

There are more than 700 different hieroglyphs, which are pictographic in nature. Some may have began as early wall paintings. They took the form of animals, weapons, nature and food to name a few.

The name Kemet, or Black Land, is what the ancient Egyptians called their country. This name stems from the color of the fertile soil after the annual flood of the Nile River.

Literacy was extremely uncommon in ancient Egyptian society. The only people who were educated to read and write were the wealthy sons of scribes who were themselves expected to train for and enter into government service.

The Royal Annals, which survive in seven known copies including the Palermo Stone, is a historical list written during the Fifth Dynasty, which narrates the reigns of the previous kings. The Merneptah Stele is also historical in nature, but it concerns the conquests of the Nineteenth Dynasty (New Kingdom) Pharaoh Merneptah. The Stele of Queen Tetisheri is also attributed to a specific king, Pharaoh Ahmose I of the Eighteenth Dynasty (also of the New Kingdom), while the Great Hymn to the Aten is a New Kingdom religious text associated with the radical reformer Akhenaten (of the Eighteenth Dynasty). The Book of the Dead is a continuum of works deriving from a tradition as old as the Old Kingdom, but it is a funerary text rather than a historical narrative or list.

The Sphinx, which is located adjacent to the Great Pyramids of Giza, has long inspired the imagination of historians, Egyptologists, and tourists. It was most likely constructed during the fourth dynasty of the Old Kingdom, probably during the reign of Khafre (one of the immediate descendents of Khufu). The Sphinx’s face is generally believed to be an image of Khafre.

The Old Kingdom established the political, societal and cultural foundations of the Egyptians dynasties to come. During this time Egypt also began to acquire the diplomatic skills for which it became famous. Contacts between Egypt and other Middle Eastern powers began as a result of Egypt wanting to keep its borders safe and trade for materials.

The Old Kingdom saw the completion of the pyramids at Giza during the Fourth Dynasty, the Great Sphinx and the Great pyramid, which is considered one of the seven wonders of the world. The Giza pyramids are an early example of quarried limestone, which was cut with extreme precision and then transported to the site. Tools called mallets were used alongside chisels to cut stone.

The Wadi Hammamat was a dry, river-bed that was frequently mined throughout ancient Egyptian history for raw minerals. It was, however, not always dry and when possible it was used by ships to sail from the Nile River to the Red Sea. This made it important at various times in ancient Egyptian history as a connection between Egypt and the trade routes of the Asiatic world.

Throughout the Pharaonic period, only a very small percentage of the Egyptian population was literate. The elites were generally educated and literate, as were the children of government officials (although these might also be considered elites). This group of people, however, was never more than one or two percent of the population. Literacy was vital to government work in Egyptian society and thus, although Egypt was a meritocratic society in theory, in practice the poor were prevented from social advancement by illiteracy.

The Satire of the Trades was written during the Middle Kingdom period. Its primary purpose was to teach scribes to venerate their own profession above all others. This is achieved by describing all the various failings and frailties of other professions in ancient Egyptian society.

The Pyramid Texts (Old Kingdom), Coffin Texts (Middle Kingdom), and the Egyptian Book of the Dead (New Kingdom) were all important aspects of Egyptian funerary literature. The Egyptians believed that the afterlife was incredibly complex and dangerous, and that any individual who died with an insufficient understanding of the underworld would not be able to proceed to heaven. The Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and the Book of the Dead were all designed to educate Egyptians about the afterlife and provide protection on their journey through the underworld.

The Egyptians believed that the afterlife was complex and dangerous. They wrote funerary texts on tombs and temples in order to guide and protect the deceased during their journey through the underworld. The Pyramid Texts emerged first, during the Old Kingdom, and were inscribed on the walls of the tombs of rulers. The Coffin Texts came later, during the Middle Kingdom, and were written on the walls of coffins (even the coffins of common people). The Book of the Dead was a collection of spells, mostly copied from the Coffin Texts, that were widely written on papyri. It became popular during the New Kingdom.

Having come from Western Asia, the Hyksos people spoke Semitic languages. They are most known for residing in Lower Egypt after losing control of Upper Egypt. The Hyksos were also very welcoming to Hebrews, whom migrated into Lower Egypt during the rule of the Hyksos in Lower Egypt.

The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus was discovered in the nineteenth century. It dates from the Second Intermediate Period. It provides rational and scientific information about a series of medical procedures presumably carried out by the author. It is incredibly important for informing our understanding of Egyptian medical practice and understanding.

Young students in ancient Egypt learned to read and write through rote memorization. Would-be scribes and government officials were instructed to copy out classic ancient texts in order to teach them how to write.

The vast majority of ancient Egyptians received no formal education whatsoever. The only people who were generally guaranteed an education were the sons of scribes and government officials. Girls were never formally educated in Egyptian society. Of course, some Egyptians might have privately educated their daughters, but this would have been extremely uncommon.

We know a considerable amount about the education of would-be scribes and government officials in the New Kingdom period. Egyptologists have determined that students were taught how to write in the hieratic script before later being taught to write and understand the much more cumbersome hieroglyphics. This is because the hieratic script was simpler, more commonly used, and more useful for government work.