Late Period (664-332 BCE - Ancient History: Egypt

The conquests of Alexander the Great took place during the second-half of the fourth century BCE. Alexander the Great was a Macedonian conqueror from the Greek-speaking world. He conquered a vast empire stretching from Greece in the west all the way to the Indian subcontinent in the east. His conquest of the Persian Empire established Greek-rule in Egypt, a condition that would persist for three centuries until the Roman occupation.

The Argead Dynasty is the name of the ruling dynasty of Macedon. Both Philip II and Alexander the Great were members of the Argead Dynasty. The Argead Dynasty ruled Egypt during the first few years of Hellenistic (Greek) rule. The Argead Dynasty was replaced by the Ptolemaic Kingdom shortly after the death of Alexander the Great.

The Diadochi were the generals and close friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control of his territory after he died. One of the Diadochi, Ptolemy I Soter, took control of Alexander’s territory in Egypt and founded the Ptolemaic Kingdom.

The Ptolemaic Kingdom, founded by Alexander the Great's general Ptolemy I Soter, was the Egyptian state from 303 BCE until the Roman conquest in 30 BCE. While instituting a highly stratified society in which Greeks constituted the elites at the expense of native Egyptians, the Ptolemaic kings fashioned themselves as Egyptian Pharaohs and sought to bolster their legitimacy in the eyes of the Egyptian population through deep syncretism of the Greek and Egyptian religions. The Seleucid kingdom was based in Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia, the Antigonids ruled parts of Macedonia and parts of Anatolia at various times, the Attalids were the ruling dynasty of the city of Pergamon, and the Argead dynasty refers to the ruling line of Macedonia during the pre-Hellenistic period, from which Alexander the Great and his father Phillip II derived.

A wadi is a dry river-bed. They can be found in countless locations, alongside major rivers, in the Middle East. They were particularly important in ancient times because they often contained lucrative mineral deposits.

The Nile is the world's longest river, measuring over 4,250 feet long. Surprisingly, it is extremely shallow relative to rivers of similar size. Many areas, including the central area of the river are not even 10 feet deep.

Before pyramids were first developed, the mastaba was a small, flat-roofed structure that sat above the underground chamber known as a serdab, which held the statue believed to hold the spirit of the deceased, or ka. These were often grouped together in one location known as a necropolis.

The mastaba, or flat-topped funerary structure, at the Funerary Complex of Djoser eventually was expanded into the large, stepped pyramid that characterizes the complex.

The first pyramid was built during the reign of King Djoser, in the third dynasty. But the origins of pyramid construction can be traced to the reign of Khasekhemwy in the second dynasty. Khasekhemwy was the first Egyptian ruler to be built in a mastaba tomb. A mastaba tomb looks like the base of a pyramid and later Egyptian rulers would extrapolate outwards and upwards from this simplistic design.

Despite centuries of historical focus and inquiry, our understanding of much of ancient Egyptian history remains limited. This is primarily because much of the archaeological record has since been wiped out. There are many reasons for this: The annual flooding and receding of the Nile naturally erodes and conceals archaeological sites; the movement of the Nile’s path over time means that some settlements are lost and other’s cannot be placed with any certainty; the destruction of monuments by later conquerors and the desecration of monuments by tomb raiders have also contributed to the loss of evidence. As a result, Egyptologists are forced to extrapolate many of their conclusions about Egyptian life and our understanding remains incomplete.

Although there are many notable exceptions, throughout ancient Egyptian history, Egyptians were most likely to build burial tombs and monuments on the west bank of the Nile. This is because the Egyptians believed that the deceased entered the afterlife from the west (imitating the behavior of the setting sun) and therefore needed to be buried on the west of the Nile in order to gain entrance into heaven.

A mortuary complex is a building, or series of buildings, designed to house the Pharaoh’s body after he has died. Mortuary complexes were first built during the early years of the dynastic era and were henceforth common throughout ancient Egyptian history. The purpose of a mortuary complex was to ensure the survival and prosperity of ancient Egyptian rulers in the afterlife. Many Pharaohs provided substantial endowments for the maintenance of their mortuary complexes after they had died and many settlements sprang up to provide for the needs of the deceased Pharaohs.

Mummification was first commonly practiced in Egypt during the rule of the fourth dynasty, at the height of the power of the Old Kingdom. The practice of mummification evolved over time, but the fundamental procedures originated with the powerful rulers of the fourth dynasty.

King Unas was the last ruler of the fifth dynasty during the Old Kingdom. His royal mortuary complex is notable because it contains the earliest known example of the Pyramid Texts. The Pyramid Texts would appear on the burial tombs of rulers throughout the rest of the Old Kingdom. The Pyramid Texts were a series of inscriptions written on the walls of Pharaoh’s burial tombs and were intended to protect the Pharaoh in the afterlife and discourage tomb raiders.

Pyramids built during the Middle Kingdom are distinct from pyramids built during the Old Kingdom in that they included traps and secret passageways, designed to prevent tomb raiding. This demonstrates that the ancient Egyptian rulers had learned from the past and highlights how grave robbing must have been relatively common in Egyptian society, in spite of the many social customs designed to discourage it.

The Walls of the Prince were built during the reign of Amenemhet I. They were built to prevent invasion from Asia into northeastern Egypt.

The Pyramid Texts emerged first, during the Old Kingdom, as a way for Pharaohs to protect themselves and ensure safe passage to the afterlife after their death. The Coffin Texts emerged later, first appearing during the First Intermediate Period and flourishing during the Middle Kingdom. The Coffin Texts were based on the Pyramid Texts, but unlike the Pyramid Texts, the Coffin Texts were available to the whole Egyptian population (so long as one could afford to be buried in a coffin). Both texts were primarily comprised of funerary spells that were inscribed on the walls of the tomb or coffin.

Shawabtis were little figurines of servants that were often buried with deceased Egyptian rulers in order to serve the ruler in the afterlife. During the Old Kingdom, they were usually built of stone. During the Middle Kingdom, they were usually built of wood. Prior to their usage in predynastic and early dynastic Egypt, however, it was relatively common for real servants to be buried alive so that they could serve the Pharaoh in the afterlife.

Flinders Petrie was a British Egyptologist in the nineteenth century. He is probably most famous for discovering the Merneptah Stele in 1896. The Merneptah Stele tells of the military exploits of King Merneptah. Petrie is also notable for discovering the ruins of Lahun — an important archaeological site that provides evidence for how the common working class of Egypt might have lived.